In Hindu and Buddhist mythology, the Lokapalas are the guardians of the four cardinal directions, known as the ‘Four Great Heavenly Kings’ (Chinese: sídà tianwáng). Not only do they watch over the compass-points, but they are also fierce protectors of the dharma (cosmic order), which was set into motion by the Gautama Buddha during his famous sermon at the deer park in Sarnath. For ordinary Chinese, however, the Lokapala have a less grand purpose: bringing the rain and helping the crops to grow, reflected in their popular name in China ‘Good Climate’ (feng tiáo yu shùn). They are folk heroes, each with their own magical and spiritual associations. Referred to here by their Chinese names, the Lokapala are as follows: Duowen, guardian of the north, is chief of the four kings and bringer of rain; Zenghzang, guardian of the south, causes the growth of roots, and is the ruler of the wind; Chiguo, King of the East, is a musical deity, who brings together human beings in harmony and converts them to Buddhism with his rhythms; and, Guangmu, guardian of the west, sees all, especially those who wish harm to the dharma. Each carries a characteristic weapon or attribute, though they are often – especially in the Chinese case – indistinguishable from one another in their artistic representations.

The importance of the Lokapalas in the popular spiritualism of China ensured their regular depiction in temples throughout the country. It is probably from this context that these wooden Lokapala figures come. Two of the group survive, represented two of the cardinal directions. Each wears heavy plate armour (mingguang, literally ‘bright-brilliant’) of a type dating back to the Sui Dynasty (AD 581 – AD 618). The armour is richly decorated, with roundels and florets, as well as arrangements of belts, chains and strings. Each also wears a cloak, and beneath their armour, a tunic which reaches below the knee. The hair of the lokapala is bunched up in a loose chignon (shufa), suitable to men of their age in Chinese society, and each wears an elaborate openwork tiara-shaped crown, the front of which bears the image of the Buddha in the lotus position (padmāsana). The left figure (in the first image) appears to be performing a loose karana mudra, a hand-gesture associated with protection, in which the middle and ring fingers are pulled in to the palm, while the other fingers remain extended. The other figure’s hands are in the gyana mudra, a gesture of knowledge and receptiveness. It is possible, then, that the otherwise identical figures are Chiguo on the left, since he protects all sentient beings, and Guangmu on the right, who sees (and therefore knows) all things.

The Qing Dynasty was a time of religious turbulence for many in China. A Dynasty of Manchu invaders, the Qing sought to establish their Chinese credentials by reverting state institutions to Confucianism, the philosophy which guided the Han (200 BC – AD 200). In the process, the established religious order, a product of centuries of negotiation between the Buddhist, Taoist and folk religions of the Empire, was downgraded. Nonetheless, for many, their ancestral rites were unaffected, and Buddhism continued to thrive away from Peking (modern Beijing). More unsettling were the numerous rebellions which occurred during the later Dynasty. The Taiping Rebellion (AD 1850 – AD 1864) was perhaps the most damaging to religious infrastructure: in the ‘Taiping Heavenly Kingdom’, the rump state in south-eastern China created as a result of the insurrection, Christianity was promoted and traditional Chinese religions were persecuted. As the Dynasty collapsed, both the Nationalist and Communist Chinese republics once again persecuted religion, most notably during Mao’s brutal Cultural Revolution (AD 1966 – AD 1976). It is a wonder, then, that given such adversity, these extraordinary statues – a solid link to the popular religion of Qing China – survived at all.