If we can identify one art-form as characteristic of the Islamic World, then it must surely be calligraphy. Given strict Islamic aniconism, with specific prohibitions not only on the representation of Allah or the Prophet Muhammad, but also on avoidance of depictions of all human forms, there was an intense focus on the written word. The importance of the Muslim holy book, the Qur’an, and of the words of the prophecies revealed to Muhammad, ensured that Qur’anic texts became a predominant – almost universal – subject for calligraphers. Islamic calligraphy (khatt Arabi) developed from two major styles: Kufic (‘al-khat ‘al-kufi) and Naskh. While it is believed that Kufic predated Naskh, the two co-existed for centuries before the six major styles of Islamic calligraphy (al-aqlam al-sitta) were codified by Ibn Muqla in the Tenth Century AD. Kufic – whose name derives from Kufa in southern Iraq – is an austere, angular script, with a low horizontal profile. Often, words in Kufic are artificially shortened or lengthened to ensure that each takes up approximately the same amount of space on the page. Its angularity and horizontality ensured that Kufic was the primary script used in carved inscriptions. More elegant and flowing, Naskh was the script favoured by scribes for everyday use. Additionally, the freedom with which diacritics were used made Naskh considerably more legible than Kufic, which often required specific training to read. Indeed, Naskh forms the basis of most modern computerised Arabic fonts, and remains the most widely used today.

One of the masterpieces of Kufic calligraphy was the important Blue Qur’an, a version of the holy text written in gold letters on deep blue pages. Probably composed in a mosque in Kairouan, in what is now Tunisia, folios of the Blue Qur’an have made prized additions to major museum collections. It was an abnormal example of the Kufic texts of the period: whereas most landscape-oriented Qur’anic pages of the time were characterised by few lines – in the case of the Amajur Qur’an, as few as three per page – the Blue Qur’an had fifteen lines per page, an as-yet unheard-of density of text. This exceptional Arabic inscription, on a heavy slab of black stone, mirrors the Blue Qur’an in a number of respects: the lettering is extremely horizontal, and highly angular. Like the Blue Qur’an, there is a heavy text density, with sixteen lines on this individual slab. However, the style of the Kufic is somewhat freer and more curvaceous than that of the Blue Qur’an itself. In this respect, it reflects the style of two other important and early Qur’anic manuscripts: the Samarkand Kufic Manuscript (now in the Hast Imam Library, Tashkent) and the Topkapi Manuscript (Topkapi Palace Museum manuscript 1a). Both of these manuscripts were originally said to have been copies of the standardised Qur’an compiled under the orders of ‘Uthman Ibn Affan, the third Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate (reigned AD 644 – AD 656), and were sent to the major cities of the Islamic World at his command. Alas, modern dating methods have indicated that both manuscripts postdate ‘Uthman’s death by around two centuries. However, their existence shows the importance placed on copying and re-affirming ‘Uthman’s standardised Qur’an in all corners of the Muslim universe. It is possibly within the context of copying and re-copying this standardised text that this important Kufic inscription was created.

This slab is inscribed with an extract from the Twenty-First Chapter (sura) of the Qur’an, specifically verses (ayats) 25 to 30. Sura 21 is also known as ‘The Prophets’ (al-anbiya), since it deals with Muhammad’s position within the historical sequence of Abrahamic prophets. The Quraysh, the Arab clan who inhabited Mecca and were guardians of the Ka’ba, did not recognise the apparent divine authority of Muhammed, putting forward a various criticisms of his prophetic revelations. Sura 21 explains Muhammad’s humanity and divine inspiration in relation to previous mortal prophets, such as Abraham, Isaac and Moses, as well as in relation to angels, the messengers of Allah. Verses 25 to 30 specifically deal with angels; it explains how angels were sent to each of the mortal prophets with a simple message, that there is no god but Allah, and that Allah had chosen the prophets as sons. It explains the limitations of angels: they are mere servants of Allah, and should they – like anyone else – claim to be a god, they will be punished with Hell like the rest. Angels are defined as different to prophets because, unlike a prophet with free will, they cannot intercede on behalf of Allah or deviate from Allah’s will. This fits into an overall discussion about the position of the Prophet Muhammad within the hierarchy of divine and mortal messengers of Allah. This establishes Muhammad’s authority both as a successor to the prophets of the past, and as an individual that was in direct communication with Allah. The chapter also, importantly, sets out the divine punishment of non-believers.

Translation: Never did We send any messenger before you to whom We did not reveal ‘there is no god but Me, so serve Me alone!’ They then said: ‘the most compassionate Lord has taken unto Himself a son.’ Glory be to Him! Those whom they so designate are only His honoured servants. They do not outstrip Him in speech, and only act as He commands. He knows whatever is before them, and whatsoever is remote from them, and they do not intercede except for him, intercession on whose behalf pleases Him, and they stand constantly in awe of Him. And if any one of them were to claim that ‘indeed, I am a god apart from Him’, We shall recompense both with Hell. Thus, do We recompense the wrongdoers. Did the unbelievers not realise…