Few men of late antiquity are as well known as Julian II, usually referred to as "the Philosopher" or "the Apostate". Julian was not satisfied with Christianity, even from an early age. His formative years were spent studying philosophy, paganism, ‘magic’, occultism and related subjects that were frowned upon by the Church. So much did Julian enjoy his scholarly pursuits that he avoided any call to Imperial duties, even though he was one of the few surviving males of the House of Constantine. His memories of family politics could not have been fond, as many of his direct and extended family were murdered in the purge of 337. Among the survivors – because of their youth – were Julian and his cousin Constantius Gallus. When Julian was compelled by Constantius II to rule in the west as Caesar, he knew that he faced a difficult task: not only was the west constantly in danger from barbarian invasion, but it was under-funded and had too small an army. Nonetheless he proved resourceful, persistent and, above all, capable. Indeed, he grew in popularity so much that it alarmed Constantius II in the east. Finally, in 360, Julian was hailed emperor by his western army, and he marched eastward to confront Constantius II. The empire was fortunate that Constantius II died before the armies of the east and the west could clash, for each army was extremely loyal to their emperor, and the resulting battle would have been horrific. As sole emperor for two years, Julian’s principal tasks were to restore pagan institutions that had suffered at the hands of the Christian Church, and to launch a much-anticipated invasion of Persia. Julian was remarkably successful in both endeavours, but was cut down in a battle against the Persians, either by an enemy or by one of his own Christian soldiers.