The little city of Kashan, in western central Iran, might not have entered the annals of history at all were it not for the fortuitous arrival of an influx of Egyptian immigrants in the middle part of the Twelfth Century AD. Fleeing the chaos that accompanied the end of the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, artisans and potters escaped to the east, and to the more stable Seljuk Empire of Iran. Kashan, which had no significant history of ceramic manufacture, became their new base of operations, within a few years, it became the centre of the most innovative and highest quality ceramic output in the Middle East. The Egyptian potters brought with them the artificially pure-white fritware, where ground glass was added to the clay to reduce the fusion temperature. Another import, underglaze painting, expanded the decorative repertoire. But Kashan became the origin point of the greatest decorative innovation of the Middle Ages. The pottery which became known as mina’i (‘enamelled’) was originally known as haft-rang (‘seven colours’) on account of the unprecedented array of hues the technique enabled to be glazed onto the surface of the vessel. The resulting images, vibrant and rich, were able to mimic the prevailing Persian art-forms, tapestry and manuscript painting, bringing an unprecedented array of patterns and images to ceramics. As a result, ceramics are one of our better sources for great Persian epics, such as the Shahnameh, compared to manuscripts, which have a poor rate of survival.

The secret to mena’i was in the combination of underglaze and overglaze painting. Underglaze – a technique whereby pigment was applied directly to the surface of the ceramic, and then covered with a transparent glaze – enhanced the durability of colours such as cobalt blue and black, which often provided the backbone of the pot-painter’s palette. Other colours were added to the overglaze, i.e. over the top of the transparent glaze, allowing them to be fired at a much lower temperature than the 950 centigrade (1742 fahrenheit) at which the main glaze was fired. This protected these pigments from the high temperature. This expanded the potter’s repertoire dramatically.

This remarkable mina’i bowl has, however, returned to a more limited repertoire, with a focus on cobalt and turquoise blue, which would later become the characteristic colours of the Kashan potteries. The turquoise blue field is replete with figural, abstract and calligraphic decoration predominantly in cobalt blue, black, and white, but with certain details in green. This decorative style is defined by scholars as 3a, which is considered the final developmental phase of mina’i during the Seljuk Period, and was exclusively produced at Kashan. At the centre of the bowl (the tondo), there is a depiction of a mythical creature in a roundel. The exact nature of this creature is unclear; it is a composite, with the head of a woman, the body and legs of a lion, wings, and a long tail with a pointed end. From the top of the wing protrudes a second female head, and it is unclear whether this is part of the composite creature, or a separate decorative expression. Most probably, the main creature is a manticore, a kind of Persian sphinx, with the head of a woman, body of a lion, and tail of a scorpion. This creature, deadly to humans, first appears in fragments of a work by the Greek writer Ktesias of Knidos, the Indica, which dealt with what he learned at the court of the Persian King Artaxerxes II about Persian beliefs regarding India and the lands beyond. In it, he describes the creature, and claims that the Persians had encountered these beasts during trading expeditions to India. It is possible that the manticore is, in fact, a misunderstanding of the sometimes man-eating tigers of the east of India. The body of this manticore is detailed in exquisite cobalt blue, and covered in small white marks which may represent stars – perhaps assimilating this manticore to a constellation of importance to the Persians. The creature’s face has a stern expression, and downcast eyes, which are emphasised by the paleness of the skin and the dark elaborate coiffure on her head. The second face is similar, though oriented downwards, and wearing a tiny hat or headpiece in her coiffure.

Outside of the roundel, which is defined by a black ring with white incised tracery patterns, sit five figures, separated by floriate motifs defined with green details. Each is beautifully detailed, with elaborate costumes and hairstyles. These figures, with their white faces and deep black hair, are clearly influenced by the Chinese ceramics and painting which were being imported into the Seljuk Empire from the East. A gathering of seated figures, sat around the outside of the bowl, was an important subject for mina’i plates. These figures often appear deep in discussion, sat among vegetal motifs to indicate the rich gardens esteemed by the Persians. These gatherings are often interpreted as meetings of sages or scholars. One figure, with his head to the side and a long flowing beard which terminates in two points, may well represent some kind of elder who is expounding on a subject of importance to his companions, some of whom appear to be female. The decoration of their clothes – in cobalt blue, black, and green – is extremely fine, and represents a clear indication of the artist’s observations of the rich traditions of Persian textiles.

This juxtaposition of mythological themes – the sphinx or manticore – against the more mundane images of individuals enjoying the pleasures of a Persian garden, was common among mina’i wares. Some, perhaps most, of these images would have been taken from the rich mythology and folk tales of the Persian tradition. It is possible that the distinctive characters around the edge of this plate may well have been recognisable to the contemporary viewer. Just below the rim, and around the upright neck of the exterior, are inscriptions in deep cobalt blue, written in the flowing naskh calligraphy. Often extracts from poetry, these texts usually expressed wishes of long life, victory, or health upon the owner of the vessel. Additionally, inscriptions often contain the signature of the potter-painter, the poet, or both. Indeed, a significant number of mina’i potters both decorated their vessels and composed the poems.

References: turquoise-blue mina’i bowls are known from numerous collections. Similar themes are found on a bowl in Oxford (Ashmolean Museum EA.1956.39) and in Lisbon (Gulbenkian Museum 300). The same colour palette and shape are found on a bowl in London (British Museum 1915,0609.3), which also bears similar free-flowing naskh calligraphy, and may have been produced in the same workshop. Another bowl in London (British Museum 1914,0318.1) displays the same mythological creature, possibly a manticore.